CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT - Case study: Stoke-on-Trent Schools, UK

In 1997 many of the schools in Stoke-on-Trent were in a dilapidated state and not fit for modern teaching and learning practice. The schools included buildings dating back to the nineteenth century, some of which had not been upgraded or refurbished for 50 years. Furthermore, the annual budget for maintenance of all the schools was £120,000; totally inadequate when one large replacement boiler would cost £80,000. The City Council’s annual expenditure was already stretched to its absolute limit so a radical brave new way of thinking was required.

In November 2000, after three years of intense planning and negotiation, one of the first PFI partnership charters in the UK was signed to cover the refurbishment and maintenance for 25 years of all Stoke-on-Trent’s 122 schools. This five-year capital expenditure scheme was very much a pioneer in PFI school projects. There was no precedence to follow and no standard contracts were available at the time. It is noted that the Treasury Task Force later issued guidance for standardizing the terms of PFI contracts.

The project cycle followed the 4ps process with independent Gateway Reviews at key points, all as the OGC Gateway Process model (www.ogc.org.uk). The different procurement options were considered before selecting the PFI approach. Feasibility studies were undertaken using the public sector comparators as the benchmark. Output specifications were developed embracing such issues as minimum temperature in classrooms. Sophisticated financial models, which included sinking funds and risk allowances, were developed and rigorously tested.

The winning bid was received from a special-purpose company called Transform Schorest of the portfolio. One of the principal reasons that Balfour Beatty succeeded in securing the contract was its innovative proposal to replace nine schools rather than refurbish them. Once the SPV was chosen there was a 12-month intense period of activity in which the architects Aedas worked with the school governors to develop acceptable designs. The construction contracts were let on a design and build basis.

The PFI Board, comprising City Counsellors, representatives from the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and 4ps together with the authority’s project director, met on a monthly basis. The PFI team comprising the authority’s project director, lawyers, financiers and the technical team met on a two-weekly basis. Some meetings comprised over 40 participants so one of the biggest challenges facing the project team was capturing the knowledge and expertise and incorporating the feedback into the project.

The key lessons learned from this project include the following:

 A real belief in the partnering ethos by all the parties. There were difficult problems to resolve throughout the negotiation period but the parties kept talking until these were finally resolved. The original contract, with 9 new schools, was extended to a total of 17 new schools; 15 were built by the SPV contractor and 2 by other contractors.

 Detailed identification and evaluation of the main risks throughout the 25-year period to be passed to the SPV. In this contract, the additional risks were estimated at 17%. Some risks were considered unreasonable for the SPV to carry and were retained by the authority, for example vandalism in school time.

 The importance of teamwork with the complete integration of the key stakeholders in an open forum.

Attention to detail in the innovative contract which included
a. a clause requiring the contractor to demonstrate a 20% saving in energy consumption in each school in the first five years by 2006 and a further 5% saving by 2010;

b. an agreement on the refinancing provision with the authority retaining 25% of any profits; this was a particularly difficult point for the negotiation team with the SPV wanting to retain the whole benefit, while the authority wished to take a 50:50 split;

c. the client’s involvement in securing a quality design, for example, they could comment at the point of handover and the contractor might be required to make changes at their own expense if not acceptable;

d. a stipulation that at the end of the 25-year period the estate should be in a position where there would be no major repair necessary for the next five years;

e. change or variation clauses allowing the authority to bring in other contractors to do the work if the SPV contractor’s price for the variation was considered too high.

This pioneering PFI project not only provided one of the best portfolios of school buildings in England but also resulted in other positive features including employment of 500 local labour during construction; apprentices taken on by the SPV contractors and sponsorship of a local community football team. Most significantly, there has been a dramatic reduction in school vandalism and a raising of student and teaching staff morale. It is anticipated that the improved buildings will also result in improved student performance in the years to come.

The main parties involved in this pioneering project were as follows:ols (Stoke) comprising shareholders Balfour Beatty Capital Projects (50%) and Innisfree (50%). The project is unique in being the largest bundled refurbishment scheme ever attempted in England and is valued at £153 million of which £80 million is for building nine new schools and refurbishing the assessments), Hurst Setter (health and safety), Capita (M&E and structural ), Walker Cotter (planning supervisor) and Atkins Faithfull & Gould (monitoring engineer/technical advisor to the lending banks);

Service Provider: Transform Schools (Stoke) Limited; Shareholders (providing the equity): Balfour Beatty Capital Projects 50% Innisfree 50%; Funders (providing the senior debt funding): Lloyds TSB and Dexia Public Finance Bank; Subcontractor 1: Stoke Schools JV comprising Balfour Kilpatrick Limited (Design and Build) and Balfour Beatty (Design and Build); Subcontractor 2: Haden Building Management Limited (Hard FM).

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT PEER REVIEW BASIC INFORMATION AND TUTORIALS

The building team should make it standard practice to have the output of the various disciplines checked at the end of each design step and especially before incorporation in the contract documents.

Checking of the work of each discipline should be performed by a competent practitioner of that discipline other than the original designer and reviewed by principals and other senior professionals.

Checkers should seek to ensure that calculations, drawings, and specifications are free of errors, omissions, and conflicts between building components.

For projects that are complicated, unique, or likely to have serious effects if failure should occur, the client or the building team may find it advisable to request a peer review of critical elements of the project or of the whole project.

In such cases, the review should be conducted by professionals with expertise equal to or greater than that of the original designers, that is, by peers; and they should be independent of the building team, whether part of the same firm or an outside organization.

The review should be paid for by the organization that requests it. The scope may include investigation of site conditions, applicable codes and governmental regulations, environmental impact, design assumptions, calculations, drawings, specifications, alternative designs, constructibility, and conformance with the building program.

The peers should not be considered competitors or replacements of the original designers, and there should be a high level of respect and communication between both groups. A report of the results of the review should be submitted to the authorizing agency and the leader of the building team.

(‘‘The Peer Review Manual,’’ American Consulting Engineers Council, 1015 15th St., NW, Washington, D.C. 20005, and ‘‘Peer Review, a Program Guide for Members of the Association of Soil and Foundation Engineers,’’ ASFE, Silver Spring, MD.)

SUB CONTRACTING DISPUTE RESOLUTION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

The problems between main and sub-contractors were one of the areas to benefit most from Part II of the UK Government’s Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 (see Section 1.6). The introduction of adjudication under that act to deal with disputes has at least allowed sub-contractors to press their claims to an earlier conclusion, and to challenge any withholding of payment by the contractor.

The Act requires payment terms to be stated and regular payments made. It prohibits ‘pay when paid’ clauses, and requires the contractor to issue a detailed ‘withholding notice’ if he seeks to hold back payment. These measures have eased the cash flow problems of sub-contractors.

Also most standard forms of sub-contract now contain provision for payment of interest on delayed payments, but this may not be very effective because a sub-contractor may not claim interest for fear the contractor might not as a consequence give him any further work.

The Civil Engineering Contractors Association (CECA) has issued a Form of Sub-contract ‘for use in conjunction with the ICE conditions of contract.’ Contractors are, of course, not obliged to use this form and many use one of their own devising or modify the standard form.

The provisions of the CECA sub-contract illustrate the many matters which such a sub-contract has to cover and the difficulty of trying to provide rights to the sub-contractor without putting the main contractor at risk under his contract.

Provisions of the CECA sub-contract, apart from defining the work, timing and duration of the sub-contractor’s input, require the sub-contract to set out the division of risks as between contractor and sub-contractor.

It defines procedures and methods of valuing variations made by the engineer and confirmed by the contractor, or made by the contractor; and sets out procedures for notification and payment for ‘unforeseen conditions’ or other claim matters. It also stipulates requirements for insurances and so on.

Many of the provisions are similar in terms to the ICE conditions applying to the contractor, and are thus passed on to the sub-contractor in respect of his work. The subcontractor is ‘deemed to have full knowledge of the provisions of the main contract’ and the contractor must give him a copy of it (without the prices) if the sub-contractor requests it.

Of particular importance is Clause 3 of the CECA sub-contract which requires the sub-contractor to carry out his work so as to avoid causing a breach of the main contract by the contractor. He has to indemnify the contractor ‘against all claims, demands, proceedings, damages, costs and expenses made against or incurred by the contractor by reason of any breach by the subcontractor of the sub-contract.’

But a sub-contractor undertaking a small value contract may find it impossible to accept this clause. If he fails to complete his work on time and this could possibly cause a delay to the whole project, he might be liable to pay many thousands of pounds to the contractor – far in excess of the value of his sub-contract.

A further problem for the engineer is that, if a dispute arises between the contractor and his sub-contractor as to who is responsible for some defective work, the defect can remain uncorrected until the dispute is resolved. If a defect is found after the sub-contractor has left site and he is believed or known to be responsible for it, the contractor may not be able to get the sub-contractor back to site to remedy the defect, or to pay for its repair.

To guard against this, the contractor may therefore hold back full payment to the sub-contractor for many months until a certificate of completion for the whole works is issued. This will cause another dispute between contractor and sub-contractor.

The development of sub-contracting in civil engineering has therefore brought both advantages and disadvantages. However, problems rarely arise if the contractor can use sub-contractors he has worked with before whose work has proved satisfactory and he treats them fairly.

SUB CONTRACTING ON CIVIL CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS BASIC INFORMATION

What Is Sub Contracting?

Many civil engineering contractors now use sub-contractors to do much of their work. Most conditions of contract permit a contractor to sub-let work of a specialist nature; but the ICE conditions of contract have gone further and permit the contractor to sub-contract any part of the work (but not the whole of the work), subject only to notifying the engineer of the work sub-contracted and the name of the sub-contractor appointed to undertake it.

The contractor does not have to notify any labour-only sub-contracts he uses. The engineer can object, with reasons, to the appointment of a sub-contractor, but otherwise has no rights in connection with such sub-contracts, except that he can require removal of a sub-contractor who proves incompetent or negligent, or does not conform to safety requirements.

Under FIDIC conditions for overseas work, sub-contracting requires the engineer’s prior sanction. In building work there has long been a trend to pass the majority of work to sub-contractors who specialize in various trades, and the same has now occurred in civil engineering where many operations are ‘packaged up’ and sub-let.

Thus sub-contracts may be let for excavation, formwork, reinforcement supplied and erected, and concreting. The advantage to the contractor is that this reduces the staff he needs on site and his capital outlay on plant and equipment. He can use sub-contractors with proven experience and does not have to take on a range of temporary labour whose quality may be variable.

The contractor retains responsibility for the quality and correctness of work and, of course, has to plan and co-ordinate the sub-contract inputs, and often supply any necessary materials.

But if much of the work is sub-contracted, the contractor’s or agent’s main input to a project may be that of dealing with the sub-contracts and controlling their financial outcome, so these matters may take priority over dealing with any engineering problems which arise.

The contractor may therefore tend to leave a sub-contractor to solve any problems he encounters, on the basis that these are his risks under his sub-contract and it is up to him to deal with them. But the sub-contractor may think otherwise, so a dispute arises as each considers the other responsible for any extra cost or delays caused.

Frequent disputes have also arisen in recent years when any default or presumed default by a sub contractor has resulted in the contractor withholding payment to him. Late payment by contractors to sub-contractors is another widespread source of complaint by sub-contractors, but remedies are difficult to devise.

The sub-contracts are private contracts whose terms are unknown to the engineer and the employer, so they cannot interfere in any such dispute. The engineer has only power to protect nominated sub contractors, i.e. subcontractors he directs the contractor to use.

SETTING OUT VERTICALITY, TUNNELS AND PIPELINES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

As a building rises the vertical alignment must also be controlled. This can be done by extending building centre lines at right angles to each other out to fixed points clear of the structure.

These lines can then be projected up the building and marked, allowing accurate measurements from these marks at each floor. Alternatively an optical plumb can be used to project a fixed point up through openings in the floors of the building so as to provide a set of reference points at each level.

The standard of setting out for tunnels must be high using carefully calibrated equipment, precise application and double checking everything. An accurate tunnel baseline is first set out on the surface using the methods described above. Transference of this below ground can be done by direct sighting down a shaft if the shaft is sufficiently large to allow this without distortion of sight-lines on the theodolite.

With smaller shafts, plumbing down may be used. A frame is needed either side of the shaft to hold the top ends of the plumb-lines and to allow adjustment to bring them exactly on the baseline. The plumb-line used should be of stainless steel wire, straight and unkinked, and the bob of a special type is held in a bath of oil to damp out any motion.

By this means the tunnel line is reproduced at the bottom of the shaft and can be rechecked as the tunnel proceeds. Many tunnels are nowadays controlled by lasers, the laser gun being set up on a known line parallel to the centre line for the tunnel and aimed at a target.

Where a tunnelling machine is used, the operator can adjust the direction of movement of the machine to keep it on target so that the tunnel is driven in the right direction. For other methods of tunnelling, target marks can be set on the soffit of rings, the tunnel direction being kept on line by adjusting the excavation and packing out any tunnel rings to keep on the proper line.

Lasers are also used in many other situations, usually for controlling construction rather than for original setting out since their accuracy for this may not be good enough. The laser beam gives a straight line at whatever slope or level is required, and so can be used for aligning forms for road pavements or even laying large pipes to a given gradient. For the latter, the laser is positioned at the start of a line of pipes and focused on the required base line.

As each new pipe is fitted into the pipeline a target is placed in the invert of the open end of the pipe, using a spirit level to find the bottom point, and the pipe is adjusted in line and level until the target falls on the laser beam. Bedding and surround to the pipe are then placed to fix the pipe in position.

Rotating lasers are also widely used and once set up give a constant reference plane at a known level. Use of a staff fitted with a reflector allows spot levels to be obtained anywhere in the area covered by the laser. Earthmoving equipment fitted with appropriate sensors can also be operated to control the level of excavation or filling with minimum input other than by the machine operator.

CIVIL CONSTRUCTION PROJECT RISK AND MITIGATION

Samuel Johnson famously wrote that ‘to build is to be robbed’. Facing the same challenges, but with the benefit of hindsight, Pope Pius II praised his architect for ‘lying about the costs’ following budget overruns on the building of Pienza Cathedral, which threatened at the time to bankrupt the Vatican.

Both of these experiences suggest that clients have been and continue to be exposed to a significant degree of cost risk when undertaking construction projects. Invariably, they also pick up much of the financial consequences of decisions, omissions and mistakes made by others working on their behalf.

Decisions made at the outset of a project: investing in land, selecting one project opportunity in favour of others; confirming a brief; or establishing project governance could all potentially have a substantial impact on project outcomes, and as a result carry significant risk. Unfortunately, many of these early decisions have to bemade without the benefit of a considered design response and may, as a result, be sub-optimal.

Whilst it is important that advice given to clients early in a project should give the team some ‘wiggle room’ to develop a preferred solution, it is also important to work within project disciplines once these are established. Effective teamwork during the design development process between the designer and cost consultant can help to mitigate many of these potential risks.

Design stages

As a client’s brief and concept designs are developed, a greater degree of fixity in terms of the design solution and predicted costs can be provided by the project team. This process is discussed in more detail in the section focused on cost planning.

However, as the design develops and cost certainty increases, so does the cost of changing the design, and the client and project team’s resistance to change.

Risk and risk transfer

As a project progresses to the appointment of contractors, the client’s overall financial commitment becomes better defined. More risk can also be transferred to third parties if the client so wishes.

Whilst under most procurement routes the client is required to accept risks associated with design performance, they will generally seek to transfer commercial and construction risks to the contractor through some form of a fixed price, lump sum contract.

Quite clearly, if the design information upon which the client obtains a contractual commitment is not complete, is ambiguous or is not fully coordinated then, not only will the client retain outstanding design risk, but will also find that the basis of his commercial risk transfer to the contractor is weakened.

Evidence from Construction Key Performance Indicators, published by the DTI, indicates the scale of this potential problem, showing that fewer than 80% of projects are completed with #10% of their original tender sum. Moreover, only around 50% of projects are completed within #5% of the tender sum.

Whilst some of this cost variation may reflect client changes, or problems on site, it is likely that some of these increases will have resulted from the consequences of continuing design development. In order to mitigate the client’s risk, it is incumbent upon the team to ensure that the design is completed to the appropriate level of detail and fixity required by the procurement route. To do otherwise risks rendering some of the effort expended in design development and cost-planning abortive.

AUTOMATED MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS BASIC AND TUTORIALS

When construction materials arrive at CIC job sites, they are identified at the unloading area, and the job site inventory database in the central computer is updated. CIC requires tight control on inventory and integrated operation of automated equipment.

Further, all construction materials must be tracked from the time of their arrival at the job site to their final position in the finished facility. Such tracking of construction materials may be done by employing automated identification systems.

There are two means of tracking construction materials: direct and indirect. Direct tracking involves identifying a construction material by a unique code on its surface. This method of tracking can be employed with the use of large prefabricated components.

Indirect tracking involves identifying construction material by a unique code on the material handling equipment. This method of tracking can be employed for tracking bulk materials such as paints [Rembold et al., 1985]. Select automatic identification systems for construction materials are described below.

Bar Coding

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) was the first organization to implement bar coding technology. The Joint Steering Group for Logistics Applications of Automated Marking and Reading Symbols (LOGMARS) spearheaded the DOD’s effort in the implementation of bar coding technology. The symbology of bar codes conveys information through the placement of wide or narrow dark bars that create narrow or wide white bars.

With the rise of the LOGMARS project, code 39 (also called “3 of 9” coding) has become a standard for bar coding. To date, most construction bar code applications have used the code 39 symbology [Teicholz and Orr, 1987; Bell and McCullough, 1988].

Laser beams and magnetic foil code readers are two basic technologies available for reading bar codes. Lasers offer the ability to read bar codes that move rapidly. Magnetic code readers are among the most reliable identification systems. It is possible to transmit the code without direct contact between the code reader and the write head on the code carrier. When the workpiece passes the read head, the code is identified by the code reader [Teicholz and Orr, 1987; Rembold et al., 1985].

Voice Recognition

Voice recognition provides computers the capability of recognizing spoken words, translating them into character strings, and sending these strings to the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. The objective of voice recognition is to obtain an input pattern of voice waveforms and classify it as one of a set of words, phrases, or sentences.

This requires two steps: (1) analyze the voice signal to extract certain features and characteristics sequentially in time and (2) compare the sequence of features with the machine knowledge of a voice, and apply a decision rule to arrive at a transcription of the spoken command [Stukhart and Berry, 1992].

Vision Systems

A vision system takes a two-dimensional picture by either the vector or the matrix method. The picture is divided into individual grid elements called pixels. From the varying gray levels of these pixels, the binary information needed for determining the picture parameters is extracted. This information allows the system, in essence, to see and recognize objects.

The vector method is the only method that yields a high picture resolution with currently available cameras. The vector method involves taking picture vectors of the scanned object and storing them at constant time intervals. After the entire cycle is completed, a preprocessor evaluates the recomposed picture information and extracts the parameters of interest [Rembold et al., 1985].

GOALS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT BASIC INFORMATION

Regardless of the project, most construction teams have the same performance goals:

Cost — Complete the project within the cost budget, including the budgeted costs of all change orders.

Time — Complete the project by the scheduled completion date or within the allowance for work days.

Quality — Perform all work on the project, meeting or exceeding the project plans and specifications.

Safety— Complete the project with zero lost-time accidents.

Conflict— Resolve disputes at the lowest practical level and have zero disputes.

Project startup— Successfully start up the completed project (by the owner) with zero rework.

Basic Functions of Construction Engineering
The activities involved in the construction engineering for projects include the following basic functions:

Cost engineering —The cost estimating, cost accounting, and cost-control activities related to a
project, plus the development of cost databases.

Project planning and scheduling —The development of initial project plans and schedules, project monitoring and updating, and the development of as-built project schedules.

Equipment planning and management — The selection of needed equipment for projects, productivity planning to accomplish the project with the selected equipment in the required project schedule and estimate, and the management of the equipment fleet.

Design of temporary structures — The design of temporary structures required for the construction of the project, such as concrete formwork, scaffolding, shoring, and bracing.

Contract management — The management of the activities of the project to comply with contract provisions and document contract changes and to minimize contract disputes.

Human resource management — The selection, training, and supervision of the personnel needed to complete the project work within schedule.

Project safety — The establishment of safe working practices and conditions for the project, the communication of these safety requirements to all project personnel, the maintenance of safety records, and the enforcement of these requirements.

CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT BASIC DEFINITION AND TUTORIALS

Construction projects are done under a variety of contract arrangements for each of the parties involved. They range from a single contract for a single element of the project to a single contract for the whole project, including the financing, design, construction, and operation of the facility. Typical contract types include lump sum, unit price, cost plus, and construction management.

These contract systems can be used with either the competitive bidding process or with negotiated processes. A contract system becoming more popular with owners is design-build, in which all of the responsibilities can be placed with one party for the owner to deal with.

Each type of contract impacts the roles and responsibilities of each of the parties on a project. It also impacts the management functions to be carried out by the contractor on the project, especially the cost engineering function.

A major development in business relationships in the construction industry is partnering. Partnering is an approach to conducting business that confronts the economic and technological challenges in industry in the 21st century.

This new approach focuses on making long-term commitments with mutual goals for all parties involved to achieve mutual success. It requires changing traditional relationships to a shared culture without regard to normal organizational boundaries.

Participants seek to avoid the adversarial problems typical for many business ventures. Most of all, a relationship must be based upon trust. Although partnering in its pure form relates to a long-term business relationship for multiple projects, many single project partnering relationships have been developed, primarily for public owner projects.

Partnering is an excellent vehicle to attain improved quality on construction projects and to avoid serious conflicts. Partnering is not to be construed as a legal partnership with the associated joint liability. Great care should be taken to make this point clear to all parties involved in a partnering relationship.

Partnering is not a quick fix or panacea to be applied to all relationships. It requires total commitment, proper conditions, and the right chemistry between organizations for it to thrive and prosper.

The relationship is based upon trust, dedication to common goals, and an understanding of each other’s individual expectations and values. The partnering concept is intended to accentuate the strength of each partner and will be unable to overcome fundamental company weaknesses; in fact, weaknesses may be
magnified.

Expected benefits include improved efficiency and cost effectiveness, increased opportunity for innovation, and the continuous improvement of quality products and services. It can be used by either large or small businesses, and it can be used for either large or small projects.

Relationships can develop among all participants in construction: owner-contractor, owner-supplier, contractor-supplier, contractor-contractor. (Contractor refers to either a design firm or a construction company.)

ESTIMATING MARGIN MARK UP ON CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS BASIC AND TUTORIALS

Margin comprises three components: indirect costs, company-wide costs, and profit.

Determining Indirect, or Distributable, Costs
The techniques used to calculate indirect costs (often called indirects) resemble those used to calculate direct costs .

Parametric Technique. The indirects calculated by this technique may be expressed in many ways, for example, as a percentage of the direct cost of a project, as a percentage of the labor cost, or as a function of the distance to the site and the volume of the construction materials that must be moved there. For a warehouse, for instance, the cost of indirects is often taken to be either one-third the labor cost or 15% of the total cost.

Unit-Price Technique. To determine indirects by the unit-price technique, the estimator proceeds as follows: The various project activities not associated with a specific physical item are determined. Examples of such activities are project management, payroll, cleanup, waste disposal, and provision of temporary structures.

These activities are quantified in various ways: monthly rate, linear feet, cubic yards, and the like. For each of the activities, the estimator multiplies the unit price by the unit quantity to obtain activity cost. The total cost of indirects is the sum of the products.

Crew Development Technique. To determine the cost of the indirects by this technique, the estimator proceeds as follows: The various project activities not associated\ with a specific physical item are determined. Next, the estimator identifies the specific personnel needed (project manager, project engineer, payroll clerks) to perform these activities and determines their starting and ending dates and salaries.

Then, the estimator computes total personnel costs. After that, the estimator identifies the specific facilities and services needed, the length of time they are required, and the cost of each and calculates the total cost of these facilities and services. The total cost of indirects is the sum of all the preceding costs.

Determining Company-Wide Costs and Profit
Company-wide costs and profit, sometimes called gross margin, are usually lumped together for calculation purposes. Gross margin is generally a function of market conditions. Specifically, it depends on locale, state of the industry and economy, and type of discipline involved, such as mechanical, electrical, or structural.

To calculate gross margin, the estimator normally consults standard handbooks that give gross margin as a percent of project cost for various geographic areas and industries. The estimator also obtains from periodicals the market price for specific work.

Then, the information obtained from the various sources is combined. As an example, consider the case of a general contractor preparing a bid for a project in a geographic region where the company has not had recent experience.


At the time that the estimate is prepared, the contractor knows the direct and indirect costs but not the gross margin. To estimate this item, the estimator selects from handbooks published annually the gross margin, percent of total cost, for projects of the type to be constructed and for the region in which the building site is located.

Then, the estimator computes the dollar amount of the gross margin by multiplying the selected percentage by the previously calculated project cost and adds the product to that cost to obtain the total price for the project.

To validate this result, the estimator examines reports of recent bids for similar projects and compares appropriate bids with the price obtained from the use of handbooks. Then, the estimator adjusts the gross margin accordingly.

ROLE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT COST ESTIMATOR

Most estimators begin their career doing quantity takeoff; as they develop experience and judgment, they develop into estimators. A list of the abilities most important to the success of an estimator follows, but it should be more than simply read through. Any weaknesses affect the estimator’s ability to produce complete and accurate estimates.

If individuals lack any of these abilities, they must (1) be able to admit it and (2) begin to acquire the abilities they lack. Those with construction experience, who are subsequently trained as estimators, are often most successful in this field.

To be able to do quantity takeoffs, the estimator must

1. Be able to read and quantify plans.

2. Have knowledge of mathematics and a keen understanding of geometry.Most measurements and computations are made in linear feet, square feet, square yards, cubic feet, and cubic yards. The quantities are usually multiplied by a unit price to calculate material costs.

3. Have the patience and ability to do careful, thorough work.

4. Be computer literate and use computer takeoff programs such as On-Screen Takeoff or Paydirt.


To be an estimator, an individual needs to go a step further. He or she must

1. Be able, from looking at the drawings, to visualize the project through its various phases of construction. In addition, an estimator must be able to foresee problems, such as the placement of equipment or material storage, then develop a solution and determine its estimated cost.

2. Have enough construction experience to possess a good knowledge of job conditions, including methods of handling materials on the job, the most economical methods of construction, and labor productivity. With this experience, the estimator will be able to visualize the construction of the project and thus get the most accurate estimate on paper.

3. Have sufficient knowledge of labor operations and productivity to thus convert them into costs on a project. The estimator must understand how much work can be accomplished under given conditions by given crafts. Experience in construction and a study of projects that have been completed are required to develop this ability.

4. Be able to keep a database of information on costs of all kinds, including those of labor, material, project
overhead, and equipment, as well as knowledge of the
availability of all the required items.

5. Be computer literate and know how to manipulate and build various databases and use spreadsheet programs and other estimating software.

6. Be able to meet bid deadlines and still remain calm. Even in the rush of last-minute phone calls and the competitive feeling that seems to electrify the atmosphere just before the bids are due, estimators must “keep their cool.”

7. Have good writing and presentation skills. With more bids being awarded to the best bid, rather than the lowest bid, being able to communicate what your company has to offer, what is included in the bid, and selling your services is very important.

It is also important to communicate to the project superintendent what is included in the bid, how the estimator planned to construct the project, and any potential pitfalls.

People cannot be taught experience and judgment, but they can be taught an acceptable method of preparing an estimate, items to include in the estimate, calculations required, and how to make them. They can also be warned against possible errors and alerted to certain problems and dangers, but the practical experience and use of good judgment required cannot be taught and must be obtained over time.

How closely the estimated cost will agree with the actual cost depends, to a large extent, on the estimators’ skill and judgment. Their skill enables them to use accurate estimating methods, while their judgment enables them to visualize the construction of the project throughout the stages of construction.

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT COST ESTIMATING TIPS AND TECHNIQUES TUTORIALS

Estimating the cost of a proposed construction project is a very complex process containing many variable factors. This is not a skill that is easily acquired. Proper study, training and experience are needed to become proficient in this area of engineering.

There are several categories that can have significant impacts on project costs. The estimator should be aware of them and properly evaluate their effects, prior to finalizing the cost estimate. Refer to the following:

1) Similar Projects: The best references are similar projects. Refer to their final cost items and related expenses as a sound basis. Experience with similar projects is invaluable.

2) Material Costs: Obtain reliable costs for materials and supplies, plus shipping charges, prior to commencing tabulation.

3) Wage Rates: Determine if the project will mandate state or federal wage rates. Also, check if local wage rates are required. It is mandatory to factor this into the estimate.

4) Site Conditions: Project site conditions that can increase construction costs are: poor soil conditions, wetlands, contaminated materials, conflicting utilities (buried pipe, cables, overhead lines, etc.), environmentally sensitivity area, ground water, river or stream crossings, heavy traffic, buried storage tanks, archaeological sites, endangered species habitat and similar existing conditions.

5) Inflation Factor: The presence of inflation is always a factor that can be extremely variable. When utilizing previous, similar projects as a primary basis for estimating, consider the Construction Cost Index as published in the Engineering News Record. This nationwide tabulation of the construction industry has been continuously recorded for decades.


6) Bid Timing: The timing of the bid opening can have a significant impact on obtaining a low bid. Seasonal variations in construction activity and conflicts with other bid openings are critical factors.

7) Project Schedule: The construction schedule can certainly affect the cost. If the project requires too aggressive of a time frame, generally the price increases, especially if there is a significant liquidated damages condition for failure to complete within a specified deadline.

Conversely, if the award notice is beyond a reasonable time and the notice to proceed is indefinite, the contractors fear inflation of material costs and may have other projects that have priority. Therefore, most bidders will inflate their bids to protect against these conditions. Any time beyond 60 days may result in higher bids.

8) Quality of Plans & Specifications: There is no substitute for well-prepared plans and specifications. It is extremely important that every detail and component of the design be properly executed and fully described. Any vague wording or poorly drawn plan not only causes confusion, but places doubt in the contractor’s mind which generally results in a higher bid.

9) Reputation of Engineer: If the project engineer or engineering firm has a good sound professional reputation with contractors, it is reflected in reasonably priced bids. If a contractor is comfortable working with a particular engineer, or engineering firm, the project runs smoother and therefore is more cost-effective.

10) Granting Agency: If a granting agency is involved in funding a portion of the project, contractors will take this into consideration when preparing their bids. Some granting agencies have considerable additional paperwork that is not normally required in a non-funded project. Sometimes this expected extra paperwork elevates the bid.


11) Regulatory Requirements: Sometimes there are conditions in regulatory agency approvals that will be costly to perform. Therefore, to be completely aboveboard with potential bidders, it is strongly recommended that copies of all regulatory approvals be contained in all bidding documents.

12) Insurance Requirements: General insurance requirements, such as performance bond, payment bond and contractors general liability are normal costs of doing business. However, there are special projects that require additional coverage. Railroad crossings are a prime example. Insurance premiums for these supplemental policies add to the project cost and must be considered up front.

13) Size of Project: The size and complexity of a project determines if local contractors have the capacity to execute the work. The larger and more intricate the proposed project is, the more it will potentially attract the attention of a broader number of prospective bidders. This is good for competition, but may increase mobilization costs.

14) Locale of Work Site: The locale of the proposed work can be a significant component in developing a realistic cost estimate. A rural setting usually has a limited labor force skilled in the construction trades. Therefore, the contractor must import tradesmen and generally pay per diem expenses; i.e., out-of-town lodging and related costs. Additionally, remote settings increase the charges for material shipment.

15) Value Engineering: Some agencies mandate that multi-million dollar projects perform a value engineering review, prior to finalizing the design or commencing the bidding process. Therefore, the estimator should be aware of this factor early in the process.

16) Contingency: The rule-of-thumb has historically added a 10% contingency on the construction total to cover those unforeseen costs that crop up as a project evolves. During times of high inflation or the limited amount of key construction materials and supplies, it is wise to increase the contingency to 15% or 20% for a more realistic estimate and provide a safety factor.


17) Supplemental Studies & Investigations: As stated in Item 4, some project sites will require special studies and/or investigations. Costs for this special work should be included in the initial cost estimate to avoid future surprises.

18) Judgement: In the final analysis, the best component of a good cost estimate is the art of practicing sound technical judgement. This factor is acquired by experience and the mentoring of senior personnel.

PARTS AND COMPONENTS OF ESCALATOR BASICS AND TUTORIALS

Escalators, or powered stairs, are used when it is necessary to move large numbers of people from floor to floor. They provide continuous movement of persons and can thus remedy traffic conditions that are not readily addressed by elevators.

Escalators should be viewed as preferred transportation systems whenever heavy traffic volumes are expected between relatively few floors. Escalators are used to connect airport terminals, parking garages, sports facilities, shopping malls, and numerous mixed-use facilities.

Although escalators generally are used in straight sections, spiral escalators also are available. Although expensive due to manufacturing complexities, they offer distinct advantages to both the designer and user because of their unique semicircular plan form.


An escalator resembles a powered ramp in construction. The major difference is that a powered ramp has a continuous treadway for carrying passengers, whereas the treadway of an escalator consists of a series of moving steps.

As for a powered ramp, the installation of powered stairs should conform with the requirements of the ‘‘American National Standard Safety Code for Elevators, Dumbwaiters, Escalators and Moving Walks,’’ ANSI A17.1.

(CLICK ON PHOTO TO ENLARGE)

An escalator consists of articulated, grooved treads and risers attached to a continuous chain moved by a driving machine and supported by a steel truss framework.

The installation also includes a handrail on each side of the steps that moves at the same speed as the steps; balustrades, or guards, that enclose the steps on each side and support the handrails; brakes; control devices; and threshold plates at the entrance to and the exit from the treadway.

The purpose of the threshold plates is to facilitate smooth passage of passengers between the treadway and landing.

The plates are equipped with a comb, or teeth, that mesh with and are set into grooves in the treadway in the direction of travel, so as to provide firm footing and to minimize the chance that items become trapped between treadway and the landing.

Each step is formed by a grooved tread portion connected to a curved and grooved riser. The tread and riser assembly is either a single die-cast piece or is assembled to a frame.

Both are suspended on resilient rollers whose axles are connected to the step chain that moves the steps. The step rollers ride on a set of tracks attached to the trussed framework. The tracks are shaped to allow the step tread to remain horizontal throughout its exposed travel.

REVIEWING ESTIMATES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

All estimates should be reviewed by all responsible parties at every stage. An estimate review should begin with a survey of the verbal description of the work, including all or most of the following: scope statement, assumptions, clarifications, qualifications, and exclusions.

As an example, the estimate is to be reviewed for a warehouse to be built in an urban area as part of a redevelopment project. The scope statement should specify the location, refer to design drawings and specifications, and list applicable building codes.

The assumptions might include such data as the number of persons who will work in the warehouse. This is an indication of the number of restrooms and fixtures needed, which can be listed as a clarification. If the price quotes are valid for 90 days, this should be stated as a qualification.

Handling and disposing of any existing hazardous material found on the site might be listed as an exclusion. This warehouse description may be reasonably complete from the viewpoint of designer and contractor and may be accurately priced.

But because of the assumption regarding the number of occupants, it may not be suitable from the viewpoint of the intended users. The exclusion regarding hazardous materials may result in unacceptable financial exposure for the client.

Issues such as these need to be addressed. The client may decide that the prospective tenants, or users, may employ more persons than the number assumed. Hence, either the estimate will have to allocate more money for rest rooms or the client will have to give the tenants an allowance to enable them to build the rest rooms they desire.

The client may also decide that an analysis of soil samples may be necessary before any construction is done to determine the extent of contamination, if any, and cost of cleanup.

Bearing these issues in mind, the parties should now review the quantitative part of the estimate. This review should comprise the following:

A summary of the key quantities involved; for example, floor area, tons of steel, cubic yards of concrete.

As a cross check, a list the key quantities—by discipline if the estimate has been prepared with the industry approach or by industry if the estimate has been prepared by the discipline approach.

A summary of the project, by industry or discipline.

At each step of the review, changes may be made, as required. After all parties agree to all parts of the estimate, it can be considered final.

At this stage, the designer should be satisfied that enough money has been allocated to carry out the project. The client should have a clear idea as to what the project will entail and how much it will cost.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION COMPANY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS BASICS AND TUTORIALS

CONSTRUCTION COMPANY TYPES FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS 
What Are The Types Of Civil Engineering Project Construction Companies?


The principles of construction project management, as outlined in this article, apply equally to those engaged in subcontracting and those engaged in general contracting.

Small Renovation Contractors. These companies generally work on jobs requiring small amounts of capital and the type of work that does not require much estimating or a large construction organization. They usually perform home alterations or small commercial and office work.

Many small renovation contractors have their offices in their homes and perform the ‘‘paper work’’ at night or on weekends after working with the tools of their trade during the day. The ability to grow from this type of contractor to a general contractor depends mainly on the training and business ability of the individual.

Generally, if one is intelligent enough to be a good small renovation contractor, that person may be expected to eventually move into the field of larger work.

General Contractors. These companies often are experts in either new buildings or alteration work. Many building contractors subcontract a major portion of their work, while alteration contractors generally perform many of the trades with their own forces.

Some general contractors specialize in public works. Others deal mainly with private and commercial work. Although a crossing of the lines by many general contractors is common, it is often in one or another of these fields that many general contractors find their niche.

Owner-Builder. The company that acts as an owner-builder is not a contractor in the strict sense of the word. Such a company builds buildings only for its own ownership, either to sell on completion, or to rent and operate. Examples of this type of company include giants in the industry, and many of them are listed on the various stock exchanges.

Many owner-builders, on occasion, act in the capacity of general contractor or as construction manager (see below) as a sideline to their main business of building for their own account.

Real Estate Developer. This is a type of owner-builder who, in addition to building for personal ownership, may also build to sell before or after completion of the project. One- and two-family home builders are included in this category.

Professional Construction Manager. A professional construction manager may be defined as a company, an individual, or a group of individuals who perform the functions required in building a project as the agent of an owner, but do so as if the job was being performed with the owner’s own employees.

The construction management organization usually supplies all the personnel required. Such personnel include construction superintendents, expediters, project managers, and accounting personnel.

The manager sublets the various portions of the construction work in the name of the owner and does all the necessary office administration, field supervision, requisitioning, paying of subcontractors, payroll reports, and other work on the owner’s behalf, for a fee.

Generally, construction management is performed without any risk of capital to the construction manager. All the financial obligations are contracted in the name of the owner by the construction manager.

Program Manager. A general contractor or construction manager may expand services by undertaking program management.

Such services will include: demolition of existing buildings on the site; devising and providing financial analyses of new buildings or a program to replace what was there, or for the acquisition of a new site; hiring an architect and other design professionals on behalf of the owner and supervising their services; performing preconstruction services during the planning stage; advertising for and receiving bids from contractors for the new work; consulting on financing and methods of payment for the work; supervising the contractor; obtaining tenants, whether commercial, residential, or industrial for the completed project; helping to administer and manage the complete project.

Obviously, the comprehensive services outlined above will require that the general contractor or construction manager augment his staff with trained architects, accountants, real estate professionals, and management and leasing experts.

Package (Turnkey) Builders. Such companies take on a contract for both design and construction of a building. Often these services, in addition, include acquisition of land and financing of the project. Firms that engage in package building usually are able to show prospective clients prototypes of similar buildings completed by them for previous owners.

From an inspection of the prototype and discussion of possible variations or features to be included, an approximate idea is gained by the prospective owner of the cost and function of the proposed building.

Package builders often employ their own staff of architects and engineers, as well as construction personnel. Some package builders subcontract the design portion to independent architects or engineers.

It is important to note that, when a package builder undertakes design as part of the order for a design-construction contract, the builder must possess the necessary professional license for engineering or architecture, which is required in most states for those performing that function.

Sponsor-Builder. In the field of government-aided or subsidized building, particularly in the field of housing, a sponsor-builder may be given the responsibility for planning design, construction, rental, management, and maintenance. A sponsor guides a project through the government processing and design stages.

The sponsor employs attorneys to deal with the various government agencies, financial institutions, and real estate consultants, to provide the know-how in land acquisition and appraisal. On signing the contract for construction of the building, the sponsor assumes the builder’s role, and in this sense functions very much as an owner builder would in building for its own account.

COMPOSITION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT PRICE BASICS AND TUTORIALS

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECT COST COMPOSITION
What Is The Composition Of Civil Engineering Project Cost?


The total price of a construction project is the sum of direct costs, contingency costs, and margin. Direct costs are the labor, material, and equipment costs of project construction.

For example, the direct cost of a foundation of a building includes the following:

Costs of formwork, reinforcing steel, and concrete
Cost of labor to build and later strip the formwork, and place and finish the concrete
Cost of equipment associated with foundation activities, such as a concrete mixer

Contingency costs are those that should be added to the costs initially calculated to take into account events, such as rain or snow, that are likely to occur during the course of the project and affect overall project cost.

Although the effects and probability of occurrence of each contingency event cannot be accurately predicted, the total effect of all contingencies on project cost can be estimated with acceptable accuracy.

Margin (sometimes called markup) has three components: indirect, or distributable, costs; company-wide, or general and administrative, costs; and profit.

Indirect costs are project-specific costs that are not associated with a specific physical item. They include such items as the cost of project management, payroll preparation, receiving, accounts payable, waste disposal, and building permits.

Company-wide costs include the following:

(1) Costs that are incurred during the course of a project but are not project related; for example, costs of some portions of company salaries and rentals.

(2) Costs that are incurred before or after a project; for example, cost of proposal preparation and cost of outside auditing.

Profit is the amount of money that remains from the funds collected from the client after all costs have been paid.

FIELD FABRICATION OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS (MIXTURE AND COMPONENTS) BASIC AND CIVIL ENGINEERING TUTORIALS

FIELD FABRICATION OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS (MIXTURE AND COMPONENTS) BASIC INFORMATION
What Are Field Fabrication Of Structural Components?


Structural components that are fabricated on site by trades people constitute the greatest risk for a catastrophic failure. This is due to the fact that control of putting parts together in the field is not done with the same diligence and controlled environment as a factory-made component.

Thus, great care must be taken to ensure that proper testing is performed so that a failure will not occur. The erection of a concrete structure is an excellent example where the use of a mixed type material must have adequate testing.

Concrete is a very viable construction material if placed according to the standards established by the organizations. However, due to the complexity of mixing the ingredients at the plant and transporting it to the site, placing the concrete at the site requires numerous controls to obtain an excellent final product.

The testing of concrete should include:

1. A trial concrete mix approved by the owner’s engineer
2. Proper mixing procedures at the concrete plant
3. Timing for the transportation of the concrete mix
4. Designed and properly installed form work and shoring so that they will not collapse or deflect
5. Temperature monitoring of the concrete at the site (to make sure that flash setting will not occur)
6. Ambient temperature monitoring (too hot for flash setting and too cold for freezing)
7. Slump test to confirm water/cement ratio of the concrete
8. Supervision for concrete vibration and dropping height for the actual placement of the concrete
9. Monitoring the thickness of a concrete slab
10. Assurance that all the concrete encapsulates the reinforcing bars, especially when
pouring columns
11. Placement of a sample of the concrete into concrete cylinders to determine the compressive strength of the concrete at 7, 14, and 28 days (via testing in the laboratory). This will be accomplished for design strength conformance and to know when the forms can be stripped
12. Checking the number and location of the reinforcing bars required for the pour
13. Proper curing of the concrete
14. Assurance that reinforcing bars are properly lapped
15. Assurance that all exterior exposed concrete is covered by 3 inches of concrete
(2 inches for interior concrete) over the reinforcing steel

Even though steel sections are fabricated in a controlled environment at a plant, the steel members must be connected in the field by iron workers with bolts and/or welding.

Thus, stringent testing is also required for a steel structure. Some of the tests that would have to be considered when erecting steel are the following:
1. Proper bolts are being utilized.
2. Required tightening (torque) of the bolts needs to be accomplished by code standards.
3. Steel sections as indicated on the approved shop drawings are in fact being installed.
4. Welds have to be checked for proper thickness and continuity.
5. All welders have to be certified.
6. Shear stud connectors have to be attached to the steel with proper spacing and welds.
7. The steel has to be fireproofed with approved material that will have proper thickness, adhesion, and density.
8. All columns are perfectly aligned (plumbed).
9. Correct steel is being used (i.e., A36).
10. Proper steel camber has been placed on the steel as specified by the consultants.
11. Splice plates must be of the approved thickness.
12. Inspection at the fabricator’s shop would be helpful for checking beam camber and obtaining coupons.

PROJECT CLOSE OUT ROLE OF ARCHITECTS OR ENGINEERS BASIC AND TUTORIALS

PROJECT CLOSE OUT ROLE OF ARCHITECTS OR ENGINEERS BASIC INFORMATION
Project Closeout Role Of Architects Or Engineers On Civil Projects


Project closeout involves all parties, including subcontractors and material suppliers. It should be addressed early in the construction phase so that the closeout can be expedited and documented in an organized and meaningful manner.

At this point in the construction process, the attention of the contractor and architect is focused on accomplishing the necessary paperwork and administrative functions required for final acceptance of the work and issuance of the contractor’s final consolidated application for payment and final waiver of lien.

The normal project closeout proceeds as follows:

1. The contractor formally notifies the architect and the client that the contracted work is substantially complete.

2. From on-site observations and representations made by the contractor, the architect documents substantial completion with the client and the contractor. In some cases, this may trigger the start of certain guarantees or warranties, depending on the provisions of the general and supplementary conditions of the contract.

3. For some projects that are phased, some but not all the building systems may be recognized by the architect and the client as being substantially complete. This should be well-documented, since start dates for warranty and guarantee periods for various building systems or equipment may vary.

4. On-site visits are made by the architect and representatives of the client, sometimes called a walk-through, and a final punchlist is developed by the architect to document items requiring remedial work or replacement to meet the requirement of the construction documents.

5. A complete keying schedule, with master, submaster, room, and specialty keys, is documented by the contractor and delivered to the client.

6. The contractor submits all record drawings, as-builts, testing and balancing reports, and other administrative paperwork required by the contract documents.

7. The contractor should submit all required guarantees, warranties, certificates, and bonds required by the general and supplementary conditions of the contract or technical specifications for each work item or trade outlined in the breakdown of the contractor’s consolidated final payment request.

8. The contractor corrects all work noted on the punchlist. A final observation of the corrected work may then be made by the architect and client.

9. If the client accepts the work, the architect sends a certificate of completion to the contractor with a copy to the client. The certificate documents that final completion of the work has occurred. All required operating manuals and maintenance instructions are given to the architect for document control and forwarding to the client.

10. The contractor submits final waivers of lien from each subcontractor or material supplier. Also provided is an affidavit stating that all invoices have been paid, with the exception of those amounts shown on the final waiver of lien. With these documents, the contractor submits the final consolidated payment request, including all change orders.

11. The architect sends a final certificate of payment to the client, with a copy to the contractor.

12. The contractor provides any required certificate of occupancy, indicating that the building authorities have jurisdiction over the project approve occupancy of the space for the intended use.

13. The client makes final payment to the contractor and notifies the architect of this.

This process is important inasmuch as it can trigger the transfer of risk from the contractor’s insurance program during construction to the client’s insurance program for the completed project.

PAYMENT REQUESTS AND CHANGE ORDERS ROLE OF ARCHITECT OR ENGINEER DURING CONSTRUCTION BASICS AND TUTORIALS

PAYMENT REQUESTS AND CHANGE ORDERS ROLE OF ARCHITECT OR ENGINEER DURING CONSTRUCTION BASIC INFORMATION
Payment Requests & Change Order Role Of Architects Or Engineers In Civil Projects


Payment Requests
The contractor normally submits a consolidated payment request monthly to the architect and client for review and certification.

The payment request should be subdivided by trade and compared with the schedule of values for each trade that would have been submitted with the subcontractor bid if required by the instructions to bidders and bid form.

The architect should review the payment request with respect to the percentage of completion of the pertinent work item or trade. Some clients or lending institutions require that a partial waiver of lien be submitted for each work item or trade with each payment request.

This partial waiver of lien can either be for the prior monthly request, which will indicate that the prior month’s payment has been received, or in certain cases for the current monthly request.

If the latter procedure is followed, the waiver may require revision, depending on the architect’s review, if a work-item or trade-payment request is modified.

The architect is not expected to audit the payment request or check the mathematical calculations for accuracy.

Change Orders
Contractor’s change-order requests require the input of the architect, engineer, and client and are usually acted on as part of the payment request procedure. A change order is the instrument for amending the original contract amount and schedule, as submitted with the bid and agreed on in the client-contractor contract.

Change orders can result from departures from the contract documents ordered during construction, by the architect, engineer, or client; errors or omissions; field conditions; unforeseen subsoil; or other similar conditions.

A change order outlines the nature of the change and the effect, if any, on the contract amount and construction schedule. Change orders can occur with both a zero cost and zero schedule change.

Nevertheless, they should be documented in writing and approved by the contractor, architect, and client to acknowledge that the changes were made, with no impact.

Change orders are also used to permit a material substitution when a material or system not included in the contract documents is found acceptable by the client and architect.

 For material substitutions proposed by the contractor, schedule revisions are not normally recognized as a valid change.

The sum of the change-order amounts is added or deducted from the original contract amount. Then, the revised contract amount is carried forward on the contractor’s consolidated application for payment after the change orders have been signed by all parties.

The normal contractor payment request procedure is then followed, on the basis of the new contract amount. If the schedule is changed because of a change order, the subsequent issue of the construction schedule should indicate the revised completion or move-in date, or both, that result from the approved change.

SITE RECORD KEEPING, INSPECTION & TESTING ROLE OF ARCHITECT OR ENGINEER DURING CONSTRUCTION BASICS AND TUTORIALS

SITE RECORD KEEPING, INSPECTION & TESTING ROLE OF ARCHITECT OR ENGINEER DURING CONSTRUCTION BASIC INFORMATION
Site Record Keeping, Inspection, and Testing Role Of Architect Or Engineer During Civil Projects


Site Record Keeping
Depending on contractual requirements for service during the construction phase, the architect may establish a field office.

In this event, dual record keeping is suggested between the site and architect’s office so that records required for daily administration of construction are readily accessible on site.

Contractor correspondence, field reports, testing and balancing reports, shop drawings, record documents, contractor payment requests, change orders, bulletin issues, field meeting minutes, and schedules are used continually during construction.

Computer systems and electronic mail make the communication process somewhat easy to control.

Inspection and Testing
Technical specifications require testing and inspection of various material and building systems during construction to verify that the intent of the design and construction documents is being fulfilled under field conditions.

Testing is required where visual observations cannot verify actual conditions. Subsurface conditions, concrete and steel testing, welding, air infiltration, and air and water balancing of mechanical systems are such building elements that require inspection and testing services.

Normally, these services are performed by an independent testing agency employed directly by the client so that third-party evaluation can be obtained.

Although the architect does not become involved in the conduct of work or determine the means or methods of construction, the architect has the general responsibility to the client to see that the work is installed in general accordance with the contract documents.

Other areas of inspection and testing involve establishing and checking benchmarks for horizontal and vertical alignment, examining soils and backfill material, compaction testing, examining subsurface retention systems, inspecting connections to public utilities, verifying subsoil drainage, verifying structural column centerlines and base-plate locations (if applicable), checking alignment and bracing of concrete formwork, verifying concrete strength and quality, and other similar items.