FOUNDATION CLASSIFICATIONS AND SELECT DEFINITION BASIC INFORMATION
What Are Structure Foundations?
Foundations may be classified based on where the load is carried by the ground, producing:
Shallow foundations—termed bases, footings, spread footings, or mats. The depth is generally D/B < 1 but may be somewhat more. Refer to Fig. 1-la.
Deep foundations—piles, drilled piers, or drilled caissons. Lp/B > 4+ with a pile illustrated
in Fig. l-\b.
Figure 1-1 illustrates general cases of the three basic foundation types considered in this text and provides some definitions commonly used in this type of work. Because all the definitions and symbols shown will be used throughout the text, the reader should give this figure careful study.
The superstructure brings loads to the soil interface using column-type members. The loadcarrying columns are usually of steel or concrete with allowable design compressive stresses on the order of 14O+ MPa (steel) to 1O+ MPa (concrete) and therefore are of relatively small cross-sectional area. The supporting capacity of the soil, from either strength or deformation considerations, is seldom over 1000 kPa but more often on the order of 200 to 250 kPa.
This means the foundation is interfacing two materials with a strength ratio on the order of several hundred. As a consequence the loads must be "spread" to the soil in a manner such that its limiting strength is not exceeded and resulting deformations are tolerable. Shallow foundations accomplish this by spreading the loads laterally, hence the term spread footing.
Where a spread footing (or simply footing) supports a single column, a mat is a special footing used to support several randomly spaced columns or to support several rows of parallel columns and may underlie a portion of or the entire building. The mat may also be supported, in turn, by piles or drilled piers.
Foundations supporting machinery and such are sometimes termed bases. Machinery and the like can produce a substantial load intensity over a small area, so the base is used as a load-spreading device similar to the footing.
Deep foundations are analogous to spread footings but distribute the load vertically rather than horizontally. A qualitative load distribution over depth for a pile is shown in Fig. 1-1 b. The terms drilled pier and drilled caisson are for the pile type member that is constructed by drilling a 0.76+-m diameter hole in the soil, adding reinforcing as necessary, and backfilling the cavity with concrete.
A major consideration for both spread footings (and mats) and piles is the distribution of stresses in the stress influence zone beneath the foundation [footing or pile tip (or point)].
The theoretical distribution of vertical stress beneath a square footing on the ground surface is shown in Fig. IAa. It is evident that below a critical depth of about 5B the soil has a negligible increase in stress (about 0.02qo) from the footing load.
This influence depth depends on B, however. For example, if B = 0.3 m, the critical stress zone is 5 X 0.3 = 1.5 m, and if B = 3 m, the zone is 15 m for a zonal influence depth ratio of 1 : 10. Because these B values are in a possible range beneath a large building, any poor soils below a depth of 2 m would have a considerable influence on the design of the wider footings.
Any structure used to retain soil or other material (see Fig. 1-lc) in a geometric shape other than that naturally occurring under the influence of gravity is a retaining structure.
Retaining structures may be constructed of a large number of materials including geotextiles, wood and metal sheeting, plain or reinforced concrete, reinforced earth, precast concrete elements, closely spaced pilings, interlocking wood or metal elements (crib walls), and so on. Sometimes the retaining structure is permanent and in other cases it is removed when it is no longer needed.
The foundations selected for study in this text are so numerous that their specialized study is appropriate. Every building in existence rests on a foundation whether formally designed or not. Every basement wall in any building is a retaining structure, whether formally designed or not.
Major buildings in areas underlain with thick cohesive soil deposits nearly always use piles or drilled caissons to carry the loads vertically to more competent strata, primarily to control settlement. Note that nearly every major city is underlain by clay or has zones where clay is present and requires piles or caissons.
Numerous bridges have retaining structures at the abutments and spread foundations carrying the intermediate spans. Usually the abutment end reactions are carried into the ground by piles. Harbor and offshore structures (used primarily for oil production) use piles extensively and for both vertical and lateral loads.
What Are Structure Foundations?
Foundations may be classified based on where the load is carried by the ground, producing:
Shallow foundations—termed bases, footings, spread footings, or mats. The depth is generally D/B < 1 but may be somewhat more. Refer to Fig. 1-la.
Deep foundations—piles, drilled piers, or drilled caissons. Lp/B > 4+ with a pile illustrated
in Fig. l-\b.
Figure 1-1 illustrates general cases of the three basic foundation types considered in this text and provides some definitions commonly used in this type of work. Because all the definitions and symbols shown will be used throughout the text, the reader should give this figure careful study.
The superstructure brings loads to the soil interface using column-type members. The loadcarrying columns are usually of steel or concrete with allowable design compressive stresses on the order of 14O+ MPa (steel) to 1O+ MPa (concrete) and therefore are of relatively small cross-sectional area. The supporting capacity of the soil, from either strength or deformation considerations, is seldom over 1000 kPa but more often on the order of 200 to 250 kPa.
This means the foundation is interfacing two materials with a strength ratio on the order of several hundred. As a consequence the loads must be "spread" to the soil in a manner such that its limiting strength is not exceeded and resulting deformations are tolerable. Shallow foundations accomplish this by spreading the loads laterally, hence the term spread footing.
Where a spread footing (or simply footing) supports a single column, a mat is a special footing used to support several randomly spaced columns or to support several rows of parallel columns and may underlie a portion of or the entire building. The mat may also be supported, in turn, by piles or drilled piers.
Foundations supporting machinery and such are sometimes termed bases. Machinery and the like can produce a substantial load intensity over a small area, so the base is used as a load-spreading device similar to the footing.
Deep foundations are analogous to spread footings but distribute the load vertically rather than horizontally. A qualitative load distribution over depth for a pile is shown in Fig. 1-1 b. The terms drilled pier and drilled caisson are for the pile type member that is constructed by drilling a 0.76+-m diameter hole in the soil, adding reinforcing as necessary, and backfilling the cavity with concrete.
A major consideration for both spread footings (and mats) and piles is the distribution of stresses in the stress influence zone beneath the foundation [footing or pile tip (or point)].
The theoretical distribution of vertical stress beneath a square footing on the ground surface is shown in Fig. IAa. It is evident that below a critical depth of about 5B the soil has a negligible increase in stress (about 0.02qo) from the footing load.
This influence depth depends on B, however. For example, if B = 0.3 m, the critical stress zone is 5 X 0.3 = 1.5 m, and if B = 3 m, the zone is 15 m for a zonal influence depth ratio of 1 : 10. Because these B values are in a possible range beneath a large building, any poor soils below a depth of 2 m would have a considerable influence on the design of the wider footings.
Any structure used to retain soil or other material (see Fig. 1-lc) in a geometric shape other than that naturally occurring under the influence of gravity is a retaining structure.
Retaining structures may be constructed of a large number of materials including geotextiles, wood and metal sheeting, plain or reinforced concrete, reinforced earth, precast concrete elements, closely spaced pilings, interlocking wood or metal elements (crib walls), and so on. Sometimes the retaining structure is permanent and in other cases it is removed when it is no longer needed.
The foundations selected for study in this text are so numerous that their specialized study is appropriate. Every building in existence rests on a foundation whether formally designed or not. Every basement wall in any building is a retaining structure, whether formally designed or not.
Major buildings in areas underlain with thick cohesive soil deposits nearly always use piles or drilled caissons to carry the loads vertically to more competent strata, primarily to control settlement. Note that nearly every major city is underlain by clay or has zones where clay is present and requires piles or caissons.
Numerous bridges have retaining structures at the abutments and spread foundations carrying the intermediate spans. Usually the abutment end reactions are carried into the ground by piles. Harbor and offshore structures (used primarily for oil production) use piles extensively and for both vertical and lateral loads.
