COMMERCIAL GRADE OF WOODS USED IN CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION BASIC AND TUTORIALS

COMMERCIAL GRADE OF WOODS USED IN CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION BASIC INFORMATION
What Are The Different Commercial Grade Of Woods?

Lumber is graded by the various associations of lumber manufacturers having jurisdiction over various species. Two principal sets of grading rules are employed: (1) for softwoods, and (2) for hardwoods.

Softwoods. 
Softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less; and green, moisture content above 19%. According to the American Softwood Lumber Standard, softwoods are classified according to use as:

Yard Lumber. Lumber of grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for ordinary construction and general building purposes.

Structural Lumber. Lumber 2 in or more nominal thickness and width for use where working stresses are required.

Factory and Shop Lumber. Lumber produced or selected primarily for manufacturing purposes.

Softwoods are classified according to extent of manufacture as:


Rough Lumber. Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but has been sawed, edged, and trimmed.

Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber. Lumber that has been dressed by a planning machine (for the purpose of attaining smoothness of surface and uniformity of size) on one side (S1S), two sides (S2S), one edge (S1E), two edges (S2E), or a combination of sides and edges (S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S).

Worked Lumber. Lumber that, in addition to being dressed, has been matched, shiplapped or patterned:

Matched Lumber. Lumber that has been worked with a tongue on one edge of each piece and a groove on the opposite edge.


Shiplapped Lumber. Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both edges, to permit formation of a close-lapped joint.

Patterned Lumber. Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form.

Softwoods are also classified according to nominal size:
Boards. Lumber less than 2 in in nominal thickness and 2 in or more in nominal width. Boards less than 6 in in nominal width may be classified as strips.

Dimension. Lumber from 2 in to, but not including, 5 in in nominal thickness, and 2 in or more in nominal width. Dimension may be classified as framing, joists, planks, rafters, studs, small timbers, etc.

Timbers. Lumber 5 in or more nominally in least dimension. Timber may be classified as beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc.

Actual sizes of lumber are less than the nominal sizes, because of shrinkage and dressing. In general, dimensions of dry boards, dimension lumber, and timber less than 2 in wide or thick are 1⁄4 in less than nominal; from 2 to 7 in wide or thick, 1⁄2 in less, and above 6 in wide or thick, 3⁄4 in less.

Green-lumber less than 2 in wide or thick is 1⁄32 in more than dry; from 2 to 4 in wide or thick, 1⁄16 in more, 5 and 6 in wide or thick, 1⁄8 in more, and 8 in or above in width and thickness, 1⁄4 in more than dry lumber.

There are exceptions, however. Yard lumber is classified on the basis of quality as:

Appearance. Lumber is good appearance and finishing qualities, often called select.

Suitable for natural finishes
Practically clear
Generally clear and of high quality
Suitable for paint finishes
Adapted to high-quality paint finishes
Intermediate between high-finishing grades and common grades, and partaking somewhat of the nature of both

Common. Lumber suitable for general construction and utility purposes, often given various commercial designations.

For standard construction use
Suitable for better-type construction purposes
Well adapted for good standard construction
Designed for low-cost temporary construction
For less exacting purposes
Low quality, but usable

Structural lumber is assigned modulus of elasticity values and working stresses in bending, compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular to grain, and horizontal shear in accordance with ASTM procedures.

These values take into account such factors as sizes and locations of knots, slope of grain, wane, and shakes or checks, as well as such other pertinent features as rate of growth and proportions of summerwood.

Factory and shop lumber is graded with reference to its use for doors and sash, or on the basis of characteristics affecting its use for general cut-up purposes, or on the basis of size of cutting. The grade of factory and shop lumber is determined by the percentage of the area of each board or plank available in cuttings of specis determined from the poor face, although the quality of both sides of each cutting must be considered.

Hardwoods.
Because of the great diversity of applications for hardwood both in and outside the construction industry, hardwood grading rules are based on the proportion of a given piece that can be cut into smaller pieces of material clear on one or both sides and not less than a specified size.

Grade classifications are therefore based on the amount of clear usable lumber in a piece. Special grading rules of interest in the construction industry cover hardwood interior trim and moldings, in which one face must be practically free of imperfections and in which Grade A may further limit the amount of sapwood as well as stain.

Hardwood dimension rules, in addition, cover clears, which must be clear both faces; clear one face; paint quality, which can be covered with pain; core, which must be sound on both faces and suitable for cores of glued-up panels; and sound, which is a general-utility grade.

Hardwood flooring is graded under two separate sets of rules: (1) for maple, birch, and beech; and (2) for red and white oak and pecan. In both sets of rules, color and quality classifications range from top-quality to the lower utility grades.

Oak may be further subclassified as quarter-sawed and plain-sawed. In all grades, top-quality material must be uniformed in color, whereas other grades place no limitation on color.

Shingles are graded under special rules, usually into three classes: Number 1, 2, and 3. Number 1 must be all edge grain and strictly clear, containing no sapwood. Numbers 2 and 3 must be clear to a distance far enough away from the butt to be well covered by the next course of shingles.

WINDOW GLASS TYPES USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BASICS AND TUTORIALS

WINDOW GLASS TYPES USED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION BASIC INFORMATION
What Are The Type Of Glass Used In Civil Construction?


Clear Window Glass.
This is the most extensively used type for windows in all classes of buildings. A range of grades, as established by Federal Government Standard DD-G-451c, classifies quality according to defects.

The more commonly used grades are A and B. A is used for the better class of buildings where appearance is important, and B is used for industrial buildings, some low-cost residences, basements, etc.

With respect to thickness, clear window glass is classified as ‘‘single-strength’’ about 3⁄32 in thick; ‘‘double-strength,’’ about 1⁄8 in thick; and ‘‘heavy-sheet,’’ up to 7⁄32 in thick.

Maximum sizes are as follows: single-strength, 40 50 in; doublestrength, 60 80 in; and heavy sheet, 76 120 in. Because of flexibility, single strength and double strength should never be used in areas exceeding 12 ft2, and for appearance’s sake areas should not exceed 7 ft2.

Plate and Float Glass. 
These have, in general, the same performance characteristics. They are of superior quality, more expensive, and have better appearance, with no distortion of vision at any angle.

Showcase windows, picture windows, and exposed windows in offices and commercial buildings are usually glazed with polished plate or float glass. Thicknesses range from 1⁄8 to 7⁄8 in. There are two standard qualities, silvering and glazing, the latter being employed for quality glazing.

Processed Glass and Rolled Figured Sheet.
These are general classifications of obscure glass. There are many patterns and varying characteristics. Some provide true obscurity with a uniform diffusion and pleasing appearance, while others may give a maximum transmission of light or a smoother surface for greater cleanliness. The more popular types include a clear, polished surface on one side with a pattern for obscurity on the other side.

Obscure Wired Glass.
This usually is specified for its fire-retarding properties, although it is also used in doors or windows where breakage is a problem. It should not be used in pieces over 720 in2 in area (check local building code).


Polished Wired Glass.
More expensive than obscure wired glass, polished wired glass is used where clear vision is desired, such as in school or institutional doors. There are also many special glasses for specific purposes:

Heat-Absorbing Glass.
This reduces heat, glare, and a large percentage of ultraviolet rays, which bleach colored fabrics. It often is used for comfort and reduction of air-conditioning loads where large areas of glass have a severe sun exposure.

Because of differential temperature stresses and expansion induced by heat absorption under severe sun exposure, special attention should be given to edge conditions. Glass having clean-cut edges is particularly desirable, because these affect the edge strength, which, in turn must resist the central-area expansion. A resilient glazing material should be used.

Corrugated Glass, Wired Glass, and Plastic Panels. These are used for decorative treatments, diffusing light, or as translucent structural panels with color.

Laminated Glass. 
This consists of two or more layers of glass laminated together by one or more coatings or a transparent plastic. This construction adds strength.

Some types of laminated glass also provide a degree of security, sound isolation, heat absorption, and glare reduction. Where color and privacy are desired, fadeproof opaque colors can be included.

When fractured, a laminated glass tends to adhere to the inner layer of plastic and, therefore, shatters into small splinters, thus minimizing the hazard of flying glass.

Bullet-Resisting Glass.
This is made of three or more layers of plate glass laminated under heat and pressure. Thicknesses of this glass vary from 3⁄4 to 3 in. The more common thicknesses are 13⁄16 in, to resist medium-powered small arms: 11⁄2 in, to resist high-powered small arms; and 2 in, to resist rifles and submachine guns. (Underwriters Laboratories lists materials having the required properties for various degrees of protection.) Greater thicknesses are used for protection against armorpiercing projectiles.

Uses of bullet-resisting glass include cashier windows, bank teller cages, toll-bridge booths, peepholes, and many industrial and military applications. Transparent plastics also are used as bullet-resistant materials, and some of these materials have been tested by the Underwriters Laboratories. Thicknesses of 11⁄4 in or more have met UL standards for resisting medium-powered small arms.

Tempered Glass.
This is produced by a process of reheating and sudden cooling that greatly increases strength. All cutting and fabricating must be done before tempering. Doors of 1⁄2- and 3⁄4-in-thick tempered glass are commonly used for commercial building.

Other uses, with thicknesses from 1⁄8 to 7⁄8 in, include backboards for basketball, showcases, balustrades, sterilizing ovens, and windows, doors, and mirrors in institutions. Although tempered glass is 41⁄2 to 5 times as strong as annealed glass of the same thickness, it is breakable, and when broken, disrupts into innumerable small fragments of more or less cubical shape.

Tinted and Coated Glasses.
These are available in several types and for varieduses. As well as decor, these uses can provide for light and heat reflection, lower light transmission, greater safety, sound reduction, reduced glare, and increased privacy.


Transparent Mirror Glass.
This appears as a mirror when viewed from a brightly lighted side, and is transparent to a viewer on the darker opposite side. This oneway- vision glass is available as a laminate, plate or float, tinted, and in tempered quality.

Plastic Window Glazing. 
Made of such plastics as acrylic or polycarbonate, plastic glazing is used for urban school buildings and in areas where high vandalism might be anticipated. These plastics have substantially higher impact strength than glass or tempered glass.

Allowance should be made in the framing and installation for expansion and contraction of plastics, which may be about 8 times as much as that of glass. Note also that the modulus of elasticity (stiffness) of plastics is about one-twentieth that of glass.

Standard sash, however, usually will accommodate the additional thickness of plastic and have sufficient rabbet depth.

Suspended Glazing.
This utilizes metal clamps bonded to tempered plate glass at the top edge, with vertical glass supports at right angles for resistance to wind pressur. These vertical supports, called stabilizers, have their exposed edges polished.

The joints between the large plates and the stabilizers are sealed with a bonding cement. The bottom edge or sill is held in position by a metal channel, and sealed with resilient waterproofing. Suspended glazing offers much greater latitude in use of glass and virtually eliminates visual barriers.

Safety Glazing. 
A governmental specification Z-97, adopted by many states, requires entrance-way doors and appurtenances glazed with tempered, laminated, or plastic material.