ORGANISMS THAT DEGRADE WOOD USED IN CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION
What Are The Organism That Degrade Wood Used In Civil Engineering Construction?
Wood can experience degradation due to attack of fungi, bacteria, insects, or marine organisms.
Fungi
Most forms of decay and sap stains are the result of fungal growth. Fungi need four essential conditions to exist: food, proper range of temperature, moisture, and oxygen.
Fungi feed on either the cell structure or the cell contents of woody plants, depending on the fungus type. The temperature range conducive for fungal growth is from 5°C to 40°C (40°F to 100°F). Moisture content above the fiber saturation point is required for fungal growth. Fungi are plants and, as such, require oxygen for respiration.
Fungi attack produces stains and/or decay damage. To protect against fungal attack, one of the four essential conditions for growth needs be removed. The most effective protection measure is to keep the wood dry by correct placement during storage and in the structure.
Fungi growth can also be prevented by treating the wood fibers with chemical poisons through a pressure treatment process.Construction procedures that limit decay in buildings include the following:
1. Building with dry lumber that is free of incipient decay and excessive amounts of stains and molds
2. Using designs that keep the wood components dry
3. Using a heartwood from decay-resistant species or pressure-treated wood in sections exposed to above-ground decay hazards
4. Using pressure-treated wood for components in contact with the ground.
Insects
Beetles and termites are the most common wood-attacking insects. Several types of beetles, such as bark beetles, attack and destroy wood. Storage of the logs in water or a water spray prevents the parent beetle from boring.
Quick drying or early removal of the bark also prevents beetle attack. Damage can be prevented by proper cutting practices and dipping or spraying with an appropriate chemical solution.
Termites are one of the most destructive insect that attacks wood. The annual damage attributed to termites exceeds losses due to fires. Termites enter structures through wood that is close to the ground and is poorly ventilated or wet.
Prevention is partially achieved by using pressure-treated wood and otherwise prohibiting insect entry into areas of unprotected wood through the use of screening, sill plates, and sealing compounds.
Marine Organisms
Damage by marine boring organisms in the United States and surrounding oceans is principally caused by shipworms, pholads, Limnoria, and Sphaeroma. These organisms are almost totally confined to salt or brackish waters.
Bacteria
Bacteria cause “wet wood” and “black heartwood” in living trees and a general degradation of lumber. Wet wood is a water-soaked condition that occupies the stem centers of living trees and is most common in poplar, willows, and elms.
Black heartwood has characteristics similar to those of wet wood, in addition to causing the center of the stem to turn dark brown or black. Bacterial growth is sometimes fostered by prolonged storage in contact with soils.
This type of bacteria activity produces a softening of the outer wood layers, which results in excessive shrinkage when redried. Bacterial attack does not pose a significant problem to common structural wood species.
Saturday, April 14, 2012
HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL BASICS AND CIVIL ENGINEERING TUTORIALS
DIFFERENT HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL BASIC INFORMATION
What Are The Different Heat Treatment Of Steel?
Heat Treatment of Steel
Properties of steel can be altered by applying a variety of heat treatments. For example, steel can be hardened or softened by using heat treatment; the response of steel to heat treatment depends upon its alloy composition.
Common heat treatments employed for steel include annealing, normalizing, hardening, and tempering. The basic process is to heat the steel to a specific temperature, hold the temperature for a specified period of\ time, then cool the material at a specified rate.
Annealing
The objectives of annealing are to refine the grain, soften the steel, remove internal stresses, remove gases, increase ductility and toughness, and change electrical and magnetic properties. Four types of annealing can be performed, depending on the desired results of the heat treatment:
Full annealing requires heating the steel to about 50°C above the austenitic temperature line and holding the temperature until all the steel transforms into either austenite or austenite–cementite, depending on the carbon content.
The steel is then cooled at a rate of about 20°C per hour in a furnace to a temperature of about 680°C, followed by natural convection cooling to room temperature. Due to the slow cooling rate, the grain structure is a coarse pearlite with ferrite or cementite, depending on the carbon content.
The slow cooling rate ensures uniform properties of the treated steel. The steel is soft and ductile. Process annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made with low carbon steel (i.e., less than 0.25 percent carbon). The material is heated to about 700°C and held long enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase.
By keeping the temperature below 727°C, there is not a phase shift between ferrite and austenite, as occurs during full annealing. Hence, the only change that occurs is refinement of the size, shape, and distribution of the grain structure.
Stress relief annealing is used to reduce residual stresses in cast, welded, and cold-worked parts and cold formed parts. The material is heated to 600 to 650°C, held at temperature for about one hour, and then slowly cooled in still air.
Spheroidization is an annealing process used to improve the ability of high carbon (i.e., more than 0.6 percent carbon) steel to be machined or cold worked. It also improves abrasion resistance. The cementite is formed into globules (spheroids) dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix.
3.3.2 Normalizing
Normalizing is similar to annealing, with a slight difference in the temperature and
the rate of cooling. Steel is normalized by heating to about 60°C (110°F) above the
austenite line and then cooling under natural convection. The material is then
air cooled. Normalizing produces a uniform, fine-grained microstructure. However,
since the rate of cooling is faster than that used for full annealing, shapes with varying thicknesses results in the normalized parts having less uniformity than could
be achieved with annealing. Since structural plate has a uniform thickness, normalizing
is an effective process and results in high fracture toughness of the material.
Hardening
Steel is hardened by heating it to a temperature above the transformation range and holding it until austenite is formed. The steel is then quenched (cooled rapidly) by plunging it into, or spraying it with, water, brine, or oil. The rapid cooling “locks” the iron into a BCC structure, martensite, rather than allowing the transformation to the ferrite FCC structure.
Martensite has a very hard and brittle structure. Since the cooling occurs more rapidly at the surface of the material being hardened, the surface of the material is harder and more brittle than the interior of the element, creating nonhomogeneous characteristics.
Due to the rapid cooling, hardening puts the steel in a state of strain. This strain sometimes causes steel pieces with sharp angles or grooves to crack immediately after hardening. Thus, hardening must be followed by tempering.
Tempering
The predominance of martensite in quench-hardened steel results in an undesirable brittleness. Tempering is performed to improve ductility and toughness. Martensite is a somewhat unstable structure.
Heating causes carbon atoms to diffuse from martensite to produce a carbide precipitate and formation of ferrite and cementite. After quenching, the steel is cooled to about 40°C then reheated by immersion in either oil or nitrate salts. The steel is maintained at the elevated temperature for about two hours and then cooled in still air.
Example of Heat Treatment
In the quest to produce high-strength low-alloy steels economically, the industry has developed specifications for several new steel products, such as A913. This steel is available with yield stresses ranging from 50,000 to 75,000 psi.
The superior properties of A913 steel are obtained by a quench self-tempering process. Following the last hot rolling pass for shaping, for which the temperature is typically 850°C (1600°F), an intense water-cooling spray is applied to the surface of the beam to quench (rapidly cool) the skin.
Cooling is interrupted before the core on the material is affected. The outer layers are then tempered as the internal heat of the beam flows to the surface. After the short cooling phase, the self-tempering temperature is 600°C (1100°F).
What Are The Different Heat Treatment Of Steel?
Heat Treatment of Steel
Properties of steel can be altered by applying a variety of heat treatments. For example, steel can be hardened or softened by using heat treatment; the response of steel to heat treatment depends upon its alloy composition.
Common heat treatments employed for steel include annealing, normalizing, hardening, and tempering. The basic process is to heat the steel to a specific temperature, hold the temperature for a specified period of\ time, then cool the material at a specified rate.
Annealing
The objectives of annealing are to refine the grain, soften the steel, remove internal stresses, remove gases, increase ductility and toughness, and change electrical and magnetic properties. Four types of annealing can be performed, depending on the desired results of the heat treatment:
Full annealing requires heating the steel to about 50°C above the austenitic temperature line and holding the temperature until all the steel transforms into either austenite or austenite–cementite, depending on the carbon content.
The steel is then cooled at a rate of about 20°C per hour in a furnace to a temperature of about 680°C, followed by natural convection cooling to room temperature. Due to the slow cooling rate, the grain structure is a coarse pearlite with ferrite or cementite, depending on the carbon content.
The slow cooling rate ensures uniform properties of the treated steel. The steel is soft and ductile. Process annealing is used to treat work-hardened parts made with low carbon steel (i.e., less than 0.25 percent carbon). The material is heated to about 700°C and held long enough to allow recrystallization of the ferrite phase.
By keeping the temperature below 727°C, there is not a phase shift between ferrite and austenite, as occurs during full annealing. Hence, the only change that occurs is refinement of the size, shape, and distribution of the grain structure.
Stress relief annealing is used to reduce residual stresses in cast, welded, and cold-worked parts and cold formed parts. The material is heated to 600 to 650°C, held at temperature for about one hour, and then slowly cooled in still air.
Spheroidization is an annealing process used to improve the ability of high carbon (i.e., more than 0.6 percent carbon) steel to be machined or cold worked. It also improves abrasion resistance. The cementite is formed into globules (spheroids) dispersed throughout the ferrite matrix.
3.3.2 Normalizing
Normalizing is similar to annealing, with a slight difference in the temperature and
the rate of cooling. Steel is normalized by heating to about 60°C (110°F) above the
austenite line and then cooling under natural convection. The material is then
air cooled. Normalizing produces a uniform, fine-grained microstructure. However,
since the rate of cooling is faster than that used for full annealing, shapes with varying thicknesses results in the normalized parts having less uniformity than could
be achieved with annealing. Since structural plate has a uniform thickness, normalizing
is an effective process and results in high fracture toughness of the material.
Hardening
Steel is hardened by heating it to a temperature above the transformation range and holding it until austenite is formed. The steel is then quenched (cooled rapidly) by plunging it into, or spraying it with, water, brine, or oil. The rapid cooling “locks” the iron into a BCC structure, martensite, rather than allowing the transformation to the ferrite FCC structure.
Martensite has a very hard and brittle structure. Since the cooling occurs more rapidly at the surface of the material being hardened, the surface of the material is harder and more brittle than the interior of the element, creating nonhomogeneous characteristics.
Due to the rapid cooling, hardening puts the steel in a state of strain. This strain sometimes causes steel pieces with sharp angles or grooves to crack immediately after hardening. Thus, hardening must be followed by tempering.
Tempering
The predominance of martensite in quench-hardened steel results in an undesirable brittleness. Tempering is performed to improve ductility and toughness. Martensite is a somewhat unstable structure.
Heating causes carbon atoms to diffuse from martensite to produce a carbide precipitate and formation of ferrite and cementite. After quenching, the steel is cooled to about 40°C then reheated by immersion in either oil or nitrate salts. The steel is maintained at the elevated temperature for about two hours and then cooled in still air.
Example of Heat Treatment
In the quest to produce high-strength low-alloy steels economically, the industry has developed specifications for several new steel products, such as A913. This steel is available with yield stresses ranging from 50,000 to 75,000 psi.
The superior properties of A913 steel are obtained by a quench self-tempering process. Following the last hot rolling pass for shaping, for which the temperature is typically 850°C (1600°F), an intense water-cooling spray is applied to the surface of the beam to quench (rapidly cool) the skin.
Cooling is interrupted before the core on the material is affected. The outer layers are then tempered as the internal heat of the beam flows to the surface. After the short cooling phase, the self-tempering temperature is 600°C (1100°F).
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